DoD International Relationships and Security Cooperation

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The Department of Defense (DoD) provides military forces to deter war and ensure national security. In our interconnected world, this mission extends beyond U.S. borders, requiring complex international relationships and robust security cooperation with global allies and partners. These engagements are essential for addressing threats, maintaining global stability, and protecting U.S. interests in an evolving international landscape.

What is Security Cooperation?

Security cooperation encompasses all interactions between the Department of Defense and foreign defense establishments aimed at achieving shared strategic objectives. This framework includes activities designed to build defense relationships, promote U.S. security interests, and enhance military capabilities of allied and partner nations.

Such cooperation goes beyond simple aid provision, emphasizing reciprocal commitment to mutual security benefits and common goals. The strategic importance of security cooperation is critical as it serves as an instrument of both national security and foreign policy, embedded within the DoD’s core mission.

In today’s era of strategic competition, this collaborative approach is fundamental to maintaining U.S. global standing and ensuring security. The 2022 National Defense Strategy explicitly underscores the vital role of alliances and partnerships, positioning security cooperation as a key mechanism for strengthening this network of international support.

Security cooperation aims to develop allied capabilities for self-defense and joint operations, secure access for U.S. forces in foreign countries during peacetime and contingencies, and cultivate relationships that promote U.S. security interests.

The Under Secretary of Defense for Policy (USD(P)) oversees these matters, holding primary responsibility for the direction, authority, and control of all security cooperation activities within the Department of Defense. This central role includes developing policy guidance, coordinating diverse initiatives, and overseeing their implementation.

Key Security Cooperation Instruments

Foreign Military Sales

The Foreign Military Sales (FMS) program is a government-to-government mechanism authorized by the Arms Export Control Act (AECA) that enables the sale of U.S. defense articles, services, and military training to eligible foreign nations and international organizations.

This program operates on a strict “no-profit” and “no-loss” basis for the U.S. government. The Department of Defense leverages its established acquisition system to procure necessary items and services for partner nations, mirroring processes used for its own military requirements.

FMS provides allies and partners with access to advanced U.S. military technology and equipment, enhancing their defense capabilities while fostering interoperability with U.S. forces. Recent examples include a substantial loan to Romania and potential future sales of advanced military systems to India, illustrating the program’s role in strengthening security partnerships across strategic regions.

The Defense Security Cooperation Agency (DSCA) administers and manages the FMS program for the Department of Defense, acting as the primary interface between the U.S. government and international partners throughout FMS transactions.

International Military Education and Training

The International Military Education and Training (IMET) program is a grant-based initiative providing professional military education and specialized training to military personnel from allied and friendly countries.

The program’s core objectives include cultivating future leaders within partner nations’ militaries, fostering understanding of the United States, building professional rapport, enhancing interoperability for joint operations, and promoting democracy and respect for human rights.

IMET represents a strategic long-term investment in nurturing relationships and instilling shared values among the next generation of military leaders worldwide. By providing firsthand exposure to U.S. military culture and democratic principles, the program aims to create lasting positive influence on foreign officers.

While executed by the Department of Defense, IMET’s funding comes from the Department of State, highlighting the critical interagency collaboration underpinning U.S. security cooperation efforts. This division of responsibility ensures foreign policy objectives are integrated into military training curriculum and program goals.

Joint Military Exercises

Joint military exercises are an indispensable instrument for the Department of Defense in pursuing international security cooperation. These exercises involve strategic deployment of military resources in simulated operational environments, providing opportunities to train for military operations, test tactics and strategies, and ensure combat readiness of participating forces.

Conducted on bilateral and multilateral levels, these exercises enhance coordination and interoperability between armed forces of participating nations. They build mutual trust, foster understanding of each other’s military capabilities, and prepare for effective joint responses to potential crises.

Recent examples include Super Garuda Shield, a large-scale joint multinational exercise with Indonesia, and Confidence 2024, a civil-military operations exercise with Lithuania involving NATO allies. These examples showcase the diverse range of exercises undertaken by the U.S. military across geographical regions and with various international partners, focusing on operational capabilities from airborne operations to civil-military coordination.

The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) regularly conducts numerous exercises designed to test and validate its core concepts, operational procedures, and overall effectiveness. These exercises are vital for maintaining the readiness and cohesion of the NATO alliance, ensuring its ability to respond effectively to evolving security challenges.

Defense Institution Building

Defense Institution Building (DIB) is a critical aspect of the DoD’s security cooperation efforts. It focuses on providing direct support to partner nations to improve security sector governance and develop essential core management competencies.

The primary aim of DIB is to assist in establishing defense institutions that are responsible, effective, transparent, and fully accountable. This approach emphasizes the foundational elements of a partner’s security apparatus, focusing on long-term sustainability and promoting principles of good governance.

By strengthening these underlying institutions, DIB ensures that military capabilities are developed and utilized in a responsible and effective manner. The Institute for Security Governance (ISG), a key component of the Defense Security Cooperation University (DSCU), plays a central role in advancing DIB goals. DSCU and ISG are instrumental in professionalizing the security cooperation workforce and promoting best practices through education, training, and expert guidance.

Military-to-Military Engagements

Military-to-military engagements form a vital component of the DoD’s international relationships and security cooperation activities. These engagements involve direct interactions between U.S. military personnel and their counterparts in national security forces of friendly foreign countries.

Activities include personnel exchanges and bilateral and regional cooperation programs, all serving as essential tools for building strong relationships. These direct interactions foster personal connections and build trust, which are fundamental for effective and sustained long-term cooperation on security matters.

Regional Engagements and Alliances

Asia-Pacific Relationships

The Department of Defense maintains an extensive network of regional engagements and alliances crucial for advancing U.S. security interests globally. In Asia, the U.S. has established key security treaties with Japan, South Korea, the Philippines, Thailand, Australia, and New Zealand.

A cornerstone of security cooperation in the Pacific is the ANZUS treaty, a trilateral agreement between Australia, New Zealand, and the United States. Despite its age and a period of partial suspension with New Zealand, ANZUS remains a vital framework for defense collaboration facing evolving security challenges in the Indo-Pacific. Its invocation following the 9/11 terrorist attacks and continued relevance in the context of China’s growing influence underscore its enduring significance.

The U.S.-Japan alliance is another critical relationship for regional stability, with the U.S. maintaining a substantial military presence in Japan. This alliance serves as a key deterrent and platform for cooperation on security issues, including those related to North Korea and China. The deep integration of military capabilities and long history of cooperation make this alliance a cornerstone of U.S. strategy in Asia.

Security cooperation with Singapore is robust, focusing on maritime security and counterterrorism efforts. Singapore’s strategic geographical location and commitment to partnership make it a valuable ally in Southeast Asia. Its contributions to the global coalition against ISIS and willingness to host U.S. military forces highlight its strategic importance.

The U.S. engages in security cooperation with nations in Central Asia to address shared transnational threats such as terrorism and narcotics trafficking. While these relationships may be less publicly prominent, they are important for maintaining regional stability and countering specific security challenges.

Recent joint military exercises, such as Super Garuda Shield with Indonesia, demonstrate deepening security ties and increasing commitment to cooperation in the Indo-Pacific region. The growing scale and multinational participation in such exercises reflect the U.S.’s strategic focus on strengthening alliances and partnerships in this vital area.

Key Indo-Pacific Security Treaties

European Partnerships

In Europe, the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) stands as the central pillar of U.S. security cooperation, uniting 32 member nations under a commitment to collective defense. NATO remains the bedrock of transatlantic security, providing an essential framework for political consultation, military cooperation, and collective defense against diverse threats. Its enduring history and continuous adaptation to evolving security challenges underscore its vital importance.

The U.S. Army maintains a significant and active presence in Europe, working in close coordination with NATO allies. This forward deployment highlights the U.S.’s unwavering commitment to European security and facilitates crucial joint training exercises and collaborative operations, providing essential reassurance to allies and enhancing the alliance’s overall readiness.

Security cooperation with Romania is particularly strong, especially in the strategically important Black Sea region. Romania’s geographical location makes it a key partner in efforts to counter Russian influence and strengthen NATO’s eastern flank. Its active participation in NATO’s missile defense system and various joint military exercises underscores its significance to both U.S. and NATO security.

The U.S. also maintains robust security cooperation with France, engaging on numerous global and regional security issues. Despite occasional policy differences, the long-standing alliance with France remains a critical asset for addressing security challenges not only in Europe but also in Africa, the Middle East, and beyond. Their continued cooperation within NATO and on various international missions demonstrates their deeply shared security interests.

Cyber defense cooperation with NATO allies, such as Montenegro, is an area of increasing importance. As cyber threats become more sophisticated and prevalent, collaboration in this critical domain is essential for protecting vital national infrastructure and democratic processes. Sharing expertise and building partner capabilities in cyberspace enhances the collective security of the alliance.

NATO Member States and Accession Dates

African Partnerships

In Africa, the U.S. engages in security cooperation with numerous nations to foster regional stability and counter terrorism threats. Morocco stands as a vital partner in North Africa, actively participating in major joint military exercises such as African Lion. Morocco’s designation as a Major Non-NATO Ally and its consistent participation in significant exercises demonstrate a strong security partnership. Its active engagement in counterterrorism efforts and contributions to regional stability are particularly important for U.S. interests in the region.

Security cooperation with Nigeria focuses on enhancing maritime security capabilities and bolstering counterterrorism efforts. As the most populous country and largest economy in Africa, Nigeria is a key partner for addressing security challenges in West Africa. Its ongoing efforts to combat Boko Haram and ISIS West Africa necessitate this close collaboration.

The U.S. provides crucial support to Somalia in its efforts to build capable security forces to counter the threat posed by al-Shabaab. This cooperation is essential for stabilizing the volatile Horn of Africa region and preventing the further spread of terrorism. The provision of targeted training and essential equipment to the Somali National Army, including its elite Danab Brigade, highlights the U.S.’s direct involvement.

The U.S. Africa Command (AFRICOM) plays a central and coordinating role in overseeing the diverse range of security cooperation activities undertaken by the U.S. military across the African continent. The existence of AFRICOM underscores the strategic importance the United States places on maintaining security and fostering strong partnerships throughout Africa. It serves as the primary focal point for military engagement and the development of collaborative security initiatives.

Interagency Coordination

Effective security cooperation requires close collaboration between the Department of Defense and other U.S. government agencies, most notably the Department of State (DOS). The Bureau of Political-Military Affairs (PM) within the Department of State acts as the principal liaison with the DoD, ensuring security assistance programs align with broader U.S. foreign policy objectives. This highlights the State Department’s crucial function in shaping the policy framework guiding security cooperation initiatives.

The Department of State holds primary responsibility for the supervision and direction of Security Assistance (SA) programs, while the Department of Defense often administers these programs on the ground. This division of responsibilities leverages the State Department’s expertise in foreign policy and the Defense Department’s implementation capabilities, ensuring both policy coherence and efficient execution.

The Secretary of State determines which countries will be eligible for key security cooperation instruments such as Foreign Military Financing (FMF) and International Military Education and Training (IMET). This underscores the State Department’s pivotal role in setting parameters based on foreign policy considerations, ensuring resources advance U.S. diplomatic and strategic interests worldwide.

Despite close collaboration, challenges in interagency coordination can arise, potentially hindering the effectiveness of security cooperation efforts. These challenges stem from bureaucratic and structural differences between agencies, including differing priorities, distinct funding mechanisms, and varied operational cultures, which can lead to friction or inefficiencies in pursuing shared security goals.

Assessing Effectiveness and Challenges

Evaluating the effectiveness of the Department of Defense’s security cooperation programs is complex, yet the Department maintains a comprehensive Assessment, Monitoring, and Evaluation (AM&E) program. This program underscores the DoD’s commitment to ensuring its security cooperation efforts achieve intended outcomes and contribute effectively to U.S. national security objectives.

To gain an objective perspective on performance, independent strategic evaluations regularly measure the efficiency and effectiveness of various security cooperation programs. These assessments provide insights into areas of success and identify areas needing improvement.

External evaluations, such as those conducted by the Government Accountability Office (GAO), have examined the effectiveness of specific programs like Section 333, highlighting instances of implementation delays and mixed results in achieving stated objectives. These external assessments provide crucial feedback to both Congress and the DoD regarding program performance and potential areas for reform.

The issue of defense burden-sharing among allies, particularly within the NATO alliance, has been a persistent concern, with the United States frequently expressing views on the levels of contributions made by its partners. This ongoing discussion reflects a broader debate about whether U.S. allies are contributing their fair share to collective defense efforts, raising important questions about the long-term sustainability and equity of these critical alliances. The debate encompasses financial contributions, types of military capabilities provided, and demonstrated willingness of allies to engage in collective security endeavors.

Human Rights Considerations

Ensuring U.S. security cooperation activities do not inadvertently support or enable human rights violations remains a paramount concern for the Department of Defense. The U.S. government faces the complex challenge of balancing strategic security interests with its commitment to promoting human rights in international partnerships.

Providing security assistance to countries with documented poor human rights records can create significant tension between achieving immediate strategic goals and adhering to fundamental values.

The Leahy Law serves as a critical mechanism, mandating thorough vetting for foreign security forces receiving U.S. assistance, aiming to prevent support from going to units or individuals implicated in gross human rights violations. This law underscores the U.S.’s commitment to ensuring security cooperation efforts don’t contribute to human rights abuses and provides a legal framework for holding recipients of U.S. aid to certain fundamental standards.

Various reports have highlighted ongoing challenges in ensuring the overall effectiveness of security cooperation programs, including implementation delays, provision of equipment that may not be entirely suitable for the intended operational environment, and potential misalignments between U.S. and partner nation objectives.

Achieving desired outcomes through security cooperation initiatives requires meticulous planning, careful implementation, and willingness to adapt strategies as circumstances evolve. Factors such as partner nations’ inherent capacity, level of political will, and divergences in threat perceptions can significantly influence the ultimate success of these complex programs.

Future Directions

The Department of Defense increasingly views international relationships and security cooperation as indispensable tools for navigating an era of intensifying strategic competition, particularly with major global actors such as China and Russia. The primary focus of security cooperation efforts is shifting towards building enhanced resilience and seamless interoperability with allies and partners worldwide, with the goal of effectively countering the growing influence of these strategic competitors. This strategic recalibration reflects the evolving geopolitical landscape and the imperative for the United States to adapt its security strategies.

Recognizing the importance of a highly skilled workforce in managing complex international security engagements, the DoD is actively investing in professionalizing its security cooperation workforce through initiatives including the Defense Security Cooperation Workforce Development Program. This commitment to workforce development will enhance the overall effectiveness and efficiency of the Department’s security cooperation endeavors.

In an ever-changing world, the DoD must maintain a proactive stance, continuously adapting its international relationships and security cooperation strategies to address emerging threats and dynamic shifts in the global security environment. The future of security cooperation will likely emphasize non-traditional security domains such as cyberspace and outer space, as well as transnational challenges like climate change and global pandemics, all with significant implications for international security. This necessitates a flexible and adaptive approach to international engagement to ensure the continued safety and security of the United States and its allies.

The Department of Defense’s international relationships and security cooperation efforts are vital components of U.S. national security strategy. Through diverse instruments and regional engagements, the DoD builds strong partnerships, enhances allies’ capabilities, and promotes shared security interests in a complex global environment. While challenges such as burden-sharing, human rights considerations, and ensuring program effectiveness persist, the ongoing commitment to assessment, adaptation, and interagency collaboration underscores the enduring importance of these international relationships in safeguarding U.S. interests and fostering global stability.

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