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A government shutdown represents one of the most dramatic failures of American democracy. It happens when the most fundamental responsibility of Congress—funding the government’s operations—collapses under the weight of political disagreement.
The modern shutdown is a relatively recent phenomenon, born from a reinterpretation of a 19th-century law and fueled by escalating political polarization. What was once unthinkable—deliberately shutting down government operations over budget disputes—has become a recurring feature of American political life.
Understanding why shutdowns happen requires examining both the mechanical process of government funding and the deeper political dynamics that drive lawmakers to embrace such a destructive tactic.
In This Article
The history reveals how constitutional design, legal interpretation, and political evolution have created a system where the threat of shutdown has become a weapon of choice for determined minorities seeking to extract concessions they cannot achieve through normal legislative processes.
This article traces the evolution of shutdowns as a political weapon since the early 1980s. It explains how reinterpretation of the Antideficiency Act transformed routine funding gaps into high-stakes confrontations, and profiles three major modern shutdown episodes: 1995–96 (Medicare and budget fights), 2013 (Affordable Care Act repeal attempt), and 2018–19 (border wall funding). Each case illustrates how partisan brinkmanship, shifting congressional control, and presidential demands turned shutdowns into tools of coercion, often with severe economic costs and political backlash. The article concludes that shutdowns are no longer rare accidents but recurring tactical maneuvers with systemic consequences.
So What:
- Shutdowns reflect deeper structural incentives—constitutional checks, party polarization, and narrow majorities—that make brinkmanship appealing but destabilizing.
- Economic impacts are real: tens of billions lost in GDP, hundreds of thousands of federal workers furloughed, and significant disruption of services.
- Politically, shutdowns often backfire, damaging the party perceived as responsible while boosting opposition credibility.
- The growing use of shutdowns as leverage over unrelated policies (e.g., ACA repeal, border wall funding) signals a breakdown of normal legislative negotiation.
- Recognizing these dynamics is crucial for assessing reform proposals (automatic continuing resolutions, modified budget rules) aimed at reducing shutdown risk.
Government Shutdowns
The government shutdown as a political weapon is a modern invention. While funding gaps occurred before 1980, they didn’t result in widespread cessation of government services. The reinterpretation of the Antideficiency Act in the early 1980s armed political combatants with a powerful new tool. The history of major shutdowns since then reveals escalating conflict where stakes have grown higher and underlying disputes more fundamental.
Timeline of Major Shutdowns
The following table provides an overview of the most significant government shutdowns since 1980 that involved furloughing federal employees, highlighting duration, political alignment, and core disputes.
| Fiscal Year | Dates | Duration | President | House Control | Senate Control | Core Dispute |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| FY1996 | Nov 14-19, 1995 | 5 days | Clinton (D) | Republicans | Republicans | Dispute over Medicare premium increases and balancing the budget in seven years |
| FY1996 | Dec 16, 1995 – Jan 6, 1996 | 21 days | Clinton (D) | Republicans | Republicans | Broader ideological clash over size of government and spending cuts |
| FY2014 | Oct 1-17, 2013 | 16 days | Obama (D) | Republicans | Democrats | Republican effort to defund or delay the Affordable Care Act |
| FY2018 | Jan 20-22, 2018 | 3 days | Trump (R) | Republicans | Republicans | Democratic demands for protections for “Dreamers” (DACA) |
| FY2019 | Dec 22, 2018 – Jan 25, 2019 | 35 days | Trump (R) | Rep (until Jan 3) / Dem (after) | Republicans | President Trump’s demand for $5.7 billion in border wall funding |
The 1995-1996 Shutdowns: Forging the Weapon
The winter of 1995-1996 marked a watershed in American politics—the first time a government shutdown was wielded as a deliberate strategic weapon in a major ideological confrontation over the fundamental size and scope of the federal government.
The stage was set by the 1994 midterm elections, a political earthquake known as the “Republican Revolution.” Propelled by their “Contract with America,” Republicans led by House Speaker Newt Gingrich captured control of both chambers for the first time in four decades. They arrived in Washington believing they had a mandate to dramatically reduce federal spending, cut taxes, and balance the budget within seven years.
This ambitious agenda put them on a collision course with Democratic President Bill Clinton. The central conflict erupted over the Republican budget, which included proposals to slow Medicare growth, increase premiums, and make significant cuts to education and environmental programs.
When President Clinton vetoed GOP spending bills and continuing resolutions containing these provisions, the government shut down twice: first for five days in November 1995, then for 21 days from mid-December into January 1996.
The outcome provided a political lesson in overreach perils. While Republican leaders hoped to force Clinton’s capitulation to their budget demands, public opinion turned decisively against them. The public largely blamed the Republican Congress for disruption and chaos.
Speaker Gingrich’s favorability ratings plummeted while Clinton’s job approval steadily rose. Republicans were eventually forced to back down, Clinton won reelection in 1996, and GOP momentum stalled.
The 1995-1996 shutdowns established the modern template for using funding lapses as coercion tools in high-stakes ideological battles while providing stark warnings that this weapon could backfire spectacularly.
The 2013 Shutdown: Hostage-Taking Tactics
The 16-day government shutdown of October 2013 represented a significant escalation in partisan warfare. The central issue wasn’t a dispute over future spending levels but an attempt to nullify a law that had already been passed, signed, and upheld by the Supreme Court: the Affordable Care Act.
Since the ACA’s 2010 passage, House Republicans had voted more than 40 times to repeal or defund it, but these efforts were consistently blocked by the Democratic-controlled Senate.
As the October 1, 2013 deadline approached—the same day ACA health insurance marketplaces were set to launch—conservative Republicans led by Senator Ted Cruz saw the must-pass spending bill as their final opportunity to stop the law. Their strategy was to hold government funding hostage, demanding that any legislation to keep government open must include provisions to defund or delay ACA implementation.
President Obama and Senate Democrats refused to negotiate under these terms, insisting on a “clean” funding bill free of policy riders. They argued that allowing one faction to effectively repeal settled law by threatening shutdowns would set a dangerous precedent.
The resulting 16-day impasse furloughed over 800,000 federal workers and cost the economy an estimated $24 billion. As in 1996, public opinion turned against Republicans, and with approval ratings falling, they eventually relented and passed a clean funding bill.
The 2013 shutdown was pivotal because it normalized using shutdown threats not just to negotiate budget terms but to attempt forcing repeal of existing, unrelated laws—a significant departure from previous conflicts.
The 2018-2019 Shutdown: Executive-Driven Impasse
The longest government shutdown in U.S. history—35 days from December 2018 to January 2019—was unique in being driven primarily by executive branch demands against initial bipartisan congressional will. The central issue was President Trump’s signature campaign promise: constructing a wall along the U.S.-Mexico border.
As the December 2018 funding deadline approached, the Republican-controlled Senate unanimously passed a continuing resolution that would have kept government open but didn’t include the border wall funding Trump demanded. It was widely expected the House would pass this measure and the President would sign it, averting the shutdown.
However, facing intense criticism from conservative media and hardline allies, Trump abruptly reversed position, declaring he would “be the one to shut it down” and would veto any spending bill without $5.7 billion for the border wall. This presidential ultimatum forced the shutdown.
The dynamic became more complicated in January 2019 when Democrats took control of the House of Representatives following 2018 midterm elections. The new Democratic majority immediately passed the original bipartisan Senate bill to reopen the government. However, Senate Majority Leader Mitch McConnell refused to allow votes on legislation the President wouldn’t support.
After 35 days of mounting economic damage and public frustration, Trump relented and signed a short-term bill to reopen the government for three weeks, allowing further negotiations—a bill containing no wall funding.
This shutdown demonstrated how a single, highly symbolic presidential demand, amplified by partisan media, could paralyze the entire government even when clear paths to bipartisan compromise existed. It highlighted the immense power of legislative leaders to block legislation that would otherwise pass.
Patterns and Evolution
Several patterns emerge from shutdown history:
Escalation Over Time: Shutdowns have generally become longer and more disruptive, evolving from brief technical delays to prolonged ideological battles.
Divided Government Correlation: The most significant shutdowns occurred during periods of divided government, when different parties controlled different branches.
Policy Riders: Modern shutdowns are increasingly driven by attempts to use must-pass spending bills to force action on unrelated policy issues rather than genuine budget disagreements.
Public Blame: Public opinion consistently holds one party more responsible, but which party depends on specific circumstances and the effectiveness of their messaging.
Economic Costs: The economic costs have grown as the federal government has become larger and more central to the American economy.
Political Risks: While shutdowns can sometimes achieve short-term goals, they generally carry significant political risks for the party perceived as responsible.
This progression shows shutdowns have evolved from brief procedural disputes to major political weapons representing power struggles, ideology, and the willingness to disrupt basic state functioning to achieve political goals.
The Root Causes of Shutdown Politics
The increasing frequency and intensity of government shutdowns aren’t random occurrences. They’re symptoms of deeper structural changes in the American political landscape that have transformed routine governance into existential warfare. Understanding these root causes explains why shutdowns have become a recurring threat and why they’re likely to continue.
The Rise of Political Polarization
The single most significant factor driving shutdown frequency is the profound increase in political polarization over the past five decades. The ideological distance between the Democratic and Republican parties has widened dramatically.
As recently as the 1970s, there was significant ideological overlap between parties. The most liberal Republicans were often closer ideologically to the most conservative Democrats than to their own party’s far right, and vice versa. This overlap created fertile ground for bipartisan coalition-building and compromise.
Today, that common ground has largely vanished. Political scientists have documented a decline in “mutual toleration”—the practice of accepting political opponents as legitimate rivals—and “forbearance”—the unwritten rule of not using institutional powers to their most destructive limits.
Measuring Polarization
One study using a Political Polarization Index found that polarization during the 2013 shutdown was four times the average recorded between 1981 and 2013. It was nearly double the level seen during the already-contentious 1995-1996 shutdowns.
This escalating polarization transforms every budget negotiation from a problem-solving exercise into a zero-sum conflict, making compromise difficult and shutdowns more likely. Early Reagan-era shutdowns were often brief disputes over budget numbers, while major recent shutdowns have been driven by fundamental ideological battles over healthcare, immigration, and government’s role.
Structural Vulnerabilities
The American constitutional system, designed in a different era for different challenges, has proven uniquely vulnerable to shutdown politics in the age of polarization.
Separation of Powers in a Polarized Age
The phenomenon of government shutdowns is almost exclusively American. Most other developed democracies don’t experience them, not because they lack political disagreements, but because their governmental systems are structured differently.
Most democracies operate under parliamentary systems where the executive branch is fused with the legislative branch. The Prime Minister is typically the leader of the majority party or coalition in parliament.
In parliamentary systems, budget passage is considered a “vote of confidence” in the ruling government. If the budget fails, it signals the government has lost legislative support, typically triggering government resignations and new elections.
This mechanism acts as a powerful “release valve” for gridlock, ensuring that governments unable to perform basic funding functions are held directly accountable by voters.
Multiple Veto Points
The U.S. system of separated powers, with separately-elected President and bicameral Congress, was designed to moderate passions and force compromise. In low-polarization eras, it largely succeeded.
However, in today’s hyper-partisan environment, this structure creates multiple “veto points.” The House, Senate, and President can all block action, and determined factions can paralyze individual legislative chambers.
When combined with extreme polarization, the system designed to foster compromise instead creates intractable gridlock. Unlike parliamentary systems, the U.S. Constitution provides no release valve. A Democratic President and Republican House can be locked in a stalemate for two years with no constitutional remedy other than political capitulation.
The modern interpretation of the Antideficiency Act has inadvertently armed this structural gridlock with a shutdown mechanism. The combination of separated powers (structure), intense polarization (motive), and shutdown mandate (weapon) creates conditions for dysfunction that other democratic systems avoid.
The Shutdown as Political Weapon
In highly polarized climates, the threat of government shutdown has transformed from a sign of governmental failure into a potent bargaining chip. It has become a tool of political leverage, particularly for factions lacking legislative votes to achieve policy goals through normal lawmaking processes.
By threatening to block “must-pass” legislation funding government, determined minorities can attempt to force concessions on unrelated issues. This creates what can be described as asymmetric political warfare—the willingness of one side to risk shutdown gives them significant leverage over opponents who view shutdowns as unacceptable governance failures.
Public Opinion and Partisan Asymmetry
Public opinion polls show this tactic is deeply unpopular with Americans. A poll during a 2023 shutdown threat found three out of four adults believe it’s unacceptable for Congress members to use shutdowns as bargaining chips.
However, the same poll revealed an important asymmetry: Republicans were twice as likely as Democrats or independents to view the tactic as acceptable. This suggests the shutdown threat appeal isn’t uniform across the political spectrum.
For those adhering to small-government ideology, shutdowns can be viewed not just as leverage but as partial victories themselves, temporarily halting federal agency functions they may see as bloated or illegitimate.
Blocking Coalitions
Negotiation theory teaches that in complex, multiparty negotiations, determined groups can form “blocking coalitions” to prevent agreements. In Congress, small but ideologically rigid factions can effectively create such coalitions, threatening their own leadership and opposing parties with shutdowns unless demands are met.
This has been a key feature of recent shutdown crises, where primary obstacles weren’t disagreements between parties but the inability of House Speakers to unite fractured caucuses behind compromises.
Electoral and Institutional Factors
Several additional factors have contributed to the rise of shutdown politics:
Primary Election Dynamics: The rise of partisan primaries has created electoral incentives for legislators to take extreme positions rather than compromise. In many congressional districts, the biggest threat to incumbents comes not from the other party but from more ideologically pure primary challengers.
This creates “primary pressure”—incentives for politicians to appeal to their party’s most committed activists rather than moderate voters. For Republicans, this often means opposing any government spending increases. For Democrats, it may mean opposing cuts to social programs.
Primary pressure is particularly intense for members from “safe” districts where one party has large general election advantages. These members have little to fear from the other party but must constantly worry about primary challenges from candidates claiming to be more conservative or liberal.
Interest Group Influence
Modern budget negotiations are heavily influenced by organized interest groups that mobilize members to pressure politicians toward specific positions. These groups often have more influence than the general public, which typically opposes shutdowns regardless of political affiliation.
Conservative groups like the Club for Growth, Heritage Action, and FreedomWorks have been particularly influential in encouraging Republican members to vote against spending increases or compromise deals. These organizations maintain voting scorecards and may spend money in primary elections against members who stray from preferred positions.
Liberal groups play similar roles on the Democratic side, though they’ve historically been somewhat less willing to encourage shutdown confrontations.
Media and Communications
Modern media coverage and social media have amplified polarization dynamics. Cable news channels and online platforms tend to focus on conflict and drama rather than technical budget details, creating incentives for theatrical behavior rather than serious negotiation.
Politicians can communicate directly with supporters through social media without traditional media filters, creating echo chambers where they receive positive feedback for extreme positions and negative feedback for compromise signs.
Institutional Decay
The breakdown of informal norms and institutional practices has made shutdowns more likely. Congress has largely abandoned “regular order”—the systematic process of considering individual appropriations bills—in favor of massive omnibus packages and continuing resolutions.
This concentration of budget decisions into single, high-stakes votes makes each funding deadline a potential crisis. The loss of bipartisan social relationships among members has also reduced incentives for compromise and increased willingness to use extreme tactics.
The High Cost of Political Dysfunction
Government shutdowns inflict substantial damage that extends far beyond Washington political theater. The costs are measured in billions of dollars of lost economic growth, disruption of vital public services, degradation of federal institutional capacity, and erosion of public trust. These self-inflicted wounds reveal the true price of political dysfunction.
Economic Damage
The most quantifiable costs of shutdowns are economic. The Congressional Budget Office’s analysis of the 35-day partial shutdown of 2018-2019 found it reduced GDP by $11 billion, with $3 billion permanently lost and never recovered.
This means shutdowns don’t just delay economic growth—they permanently shrink the American economy. The permanent losses come from cancelled business activities, delayed investments, and lost productivity that can never be recaptured.
Financial firms estimate that shutdowns reduce quarterly GDP growth by approximately 0.2 percentage points for each week they continue. This occurs because furloughed federal workers immediately reduce spending, and government stops purchasing goods and services from the private sector.
Direct Federal Costs
Beyond lost economic output, shutdowns waste taxpayer dollars directly. A 2019 Senate report found that three shutdowns in 2013, 2018, and 2019 cost the federal government nearly $4 billion. This includes back pay to furloughed employees for work never performed, lost revenue from uncollected fees, and penalties for late contractor payments.
The payroll cost for furloughed workers during the 16-day 2013 shutdown alone amounted to $2 billion. This demonstrates the fiscal irrationality of shutdowns—their costs often far exceed the disputed amounts at the heart of political conflicts.
Private Sector Ripple Effects
Economic pain extends far beyond the federal workforce, creating disruptive ripples throughout the private sector.
Federal Contractors
The U.S. government spends an average of $13 billion per week on federal contracts, with nearly $3 billion going to small businesses. During shutdowns, this funding stops, leaving private companies in precarious positions and often forcing them to furlough or lay off their own employees.
Unlike federal workers, contractors typically don’t receive back pay when shutdowns end, making them among the biggest financial victims of political standoffs.
Tourism and Local Economies
The closure of national parks, monuments, and museums deals direct blows to tourism industries and local economies. During the 16-day 2013 shutdown, National Park Service estimated that site closures resulted in $500 million in lost visitor spending for gateway communities nationwide.
Small towns near popular parks like Yellowstone or the Grand Canyon depend heavily on tourism revenue. Hotels, restaurants, and tour operators can lose most of their business overnight when parks close during peak seasons.
Business Operations
Shutdowns freeze routine government functions that facilitate commerce. Businesses can’t obtain federal permits and certifications, and access to government-backed loans from the Small Business Administration and Federal Housing Administration is suspended. This delays private investment, hiring decisions, and home purchases.
Financial Market Uncertainty
Shutdowns halt collection and publication of vital economic data from agencies like the Bureau of Labor Statistics and Census Bureau. This forces the Federal Reserve, investors, and corporate leaders to make critical decisions “in the dark” without current information on inflation, employment, and economic growth.
This uncertainty increases market volatility and can undermine investor confidence in the U.S. as a steward of the global financial system.
Human and Institutional Costs
Perhaps the most profound damage from shutdowns is human and institutional rather than economic.
Federal Workforce Degradation
The immediate financial hardship of missed paychecks is just the beginning. Research from the University of Southern California found that shutdowns have deeply corrosive effects on the federal workforce. Employees exposed to shutdowns report higher levels of administrative dysfunction, unmanageable workloads upon return, and abandoned projects.
The experience harms morale and job satisfaction. Most critically, shutdowns lead to significant increases in employee turnover. Preliminary findings suggest that federal agencies with 10,000 employees lose approximately 500 additional workers in the fiscal quarter immediately following a shutdown.
This “brain drain” of skilled public servants—from NASA engineers to public health experts—degrades government institutional knowledge and long-term capacity to serve Americans effectively.
Scientific and Research Disruption
The halt of “non-essential” activities can have irreversible consequences for scientific research and public health. During the 2018-2019 shutdown, a major NASA scientific balloon campaign in New Zealand had to be delayed by an entire year, and seven weeks of crucial science flights were lost forever.
At the National Institutes of Health, the 2013 shutdown prevented hundreds of patients, many children with cancer, from enrolling in clinical trials for experimental treatments. These aren’t mere inconveniences—they represent lost opportunities for scientific discovery and potential loss of life.
Research that takes years or decades to complete can be set back significantly by even brief shutdowns. Laboratory experiments requiring continuous monitoring may be lost entirely, forcing scientists to restart projects from the beginning.
Public Health and Safety Risks
Shutdowns can compromise public health and safety in multiple ways. Food safety inspections are suspended, increasing risks of foodborne illness outbreaks. Environmental monitoring and hazardous waste site inspections are halted, potentially exposing communities to environmental dangers.
The CDC continues monitoring disease outbreaks but may reduce other surveillance activities. During flu seasons or other health emergencies, this reduced capacity could slow detection and response to emerging threats.
Air travel safety can be compromised when TSA agents and air traffic controllers, working without pay during extended shutdowns, call in sick at higher rates, leading to longer security lines and flight delays.
Erosion of Democratic Governance
The highest cost may be damage to the fundamental bonds between Americans and their government. When citizens repeatedly witness elected leaders failing to perform the most basic governance duty—funding government operations—it reinforces perceptions that the political system is broken and leaders care more about partisan warfare than public good.
This deepens political cynicism, undermines faith in democratic institutions, and makes it harder to solve serious national challenges. When government appears unable to handle routine functions like passing budgets, public confidence in its ability to address complex problems like climate change, healthcare, or economic inequality erodes.
International Reputation
Government shutdowns damage America’s international standing and credibility. Foreign allies and trading partners view shutdowns as signs of American political dysfunction and institutional weakness. During the 2013 shutdown, international media characterized the U.S. as a country whose political system was fundamentally broken.
Credit rating agencies have cited shutdown threats as factors in their assessments of U.S. government debt. While the U.S. has never defaulted due to a shutdown, periodic crises create uncertainty that can affect borrowing costs and international economic relationships.
Democratic Norms and Precedents
Each shutdown normalizes the tactic and makes future ones more likely. What was once unthinkable—deliberately shutting down government operations over policy disputes—becomes routine political strategy. This erosion of democratic norms and governing practices represents a form of institutional damage that’s difficult to quantify but potentially very costly for American democracy’s long-term health.
The precedent that small, determined minorities can paralyze entire segments of government operations by refusing to compromise sets dangerous standards for democratic governance. It suggests that the American political system may be incapable of handling the routine business of governing, much less addressing major challenges requiring sustained policy attention and implementation.
The International Exception
The United States stands virtually alone among developed democracies in its willingness to shut down government operations over legislative disputes. This uniqueness isn’t accidental—it reflects specific constitutional, legal, and political choices that distinguish the American system from other democratic approaches to budget conflicts.
How Other Countries Handle Budget Disputes
Most developed nations have constitutional or legal mechanisms preventing budget disputes from paralyzing government operations. These systems provide instructive contrasts to the American approach.
Parliamentary Systems
The vast majority of developed democracies operate under parliamentary systems where executive and legislative branches are fused. The Prime Minister is typically the leader of the majority party or coalition in parliament.
In these systems, budget passage is considered a “vote of confidence” in the ruling government. If the budget fails to pass, it signals that the government has lost parliamentary support. This typically triggers government resignation and calls for new elections rather than government shutdown.
Countries like the United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, and most European nations follow this model. The mechanism acts as a powerful “release valve” for gridlock, ensuring that governments unable to perform basic funding functions face immediate electoral accountability.
Automatic Continuing Mechanisms
Many countries have legal frameworks automatically continuing government operations at previous funding levels when new budgets aren’t approved on time. These automatic continuing resolutions eliminate the possibility of shutdowns while maintaining pressure for budget agreements.
Some nations build these mechanisms into their constitutions, while others establish them through ordinary legislation. The key principle is preventing budget disputes from interrupting essential government services.
Constitutional Protections
Several countries provide constitutional protection for essential government services, making them immune from budget-related disruptions. These protections ensure that core state functions continue regardless of legislative disagreements.
Comparative Analysis
The contrast between American and international approaches reveals several key differences:
Accountability Mechanisms
Parliamentary systems create direct accountability for budget failures through potential government collapse and new elections. This gives all parties strong incentives to reach agreements rather than risk electoral consequences.
The American system lacks such direct accountability mechanisms. A President and Congress can remain in prolonged gridlock without facing immediate electoral consequences, removing key incentives for compromise.
Structural Design
Parliamentary fusion of executive and legislative power eliminates the separation-of-powers conflicts that enable American shutdowns. When the same party or coalition controls both branches, budget coordination is inherently easier.
American separation of powers, while providing important checks and balances, creates multiple veto points where determined minorities can block action.
Legal Framework
Most other countries don’t have equivalent laws to America’s Antideficiency Act requiring government shutdown during funding gaps. Instead, their legal frameworks assume government continuity while political disputes are resolved.
The Civiletti interpretation of the Antideficiency Act created a uniquely American requirement for shutdown that doesn’t exist elsewhere.
Lessons for American Reform
International comparisons suggest several potential reforms that could reduce shutdown frequency or severity:
Automatic Continuing Resolutions
Congress could pass legislation establishing automatic continuing resolutions that maintain government funding at previous levels during budget disputes. This would eliminate shutdown threats while preserving incentives for full budget agreements.
Constitutional Changes
More ambitious reforms might involve constitutional amendments changing how budget disputes are resolved, though such changes would require broad political consensus unlikely in the current environment.
Process Reforms
Less dramatic changes could include returning to “regular order” in appropriations, where individual bills are considered separately rather than bundled into massive packages that become all-or-nothing propositions.
Timing Changes
Some propose changing the fiscal year timing to avoid budget deadlines during politically sensitive periods or spreading appropriations deadlines throughout the year to reduce concentrated pressure points.
The international experience demonstrates that government shutdowns aren’t inevitable features of democratic governance but rather results of specific institutional and legal choices. While completely eliminating shutdown possibilities might require major systemic changes, various reforms could reduce their frequency and severity based on lessons from other democracies’ approaches to budget disputes.
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